Carbon-Based Electrodes for Sodium-Ion Batteries: Material Design, Electrochemical Performance, and Challenges

Substantial energy storage systems are among the contemporary demands to fulfil the rising production of clean energy resources. Constant research is being done focusing on the advancement in energy storage technology to make it efficient, economically feasible, and environmentally friendly. LIBs were the most often employed energy storage systems, but they suffer from hazardous environmental impact and costly, insufficient precursor material. SIBs have proven to be the finest substitute due to their cost-effectiveness and vast material sources. But still widespread application of SIBs is hindered by the limitations of the electrode materials. The poor electrochemical performance, because of the wide ionic radius, has put a limit on the selection of efficient electrode materials. Among various electrode materials, carbon-based electrodes are of strong interest due to their chemical stability, larger active area, and higher electrical conductivity. Therefore, this review focuses on graphite, graphene, CNTs, and their composites as carbon-based electrode materials for SIBs. Hard carbon, an important practical carbon anode for SIBs, is briefly discussed for comparison. The influence of different material design strategies on the electrochemical performance of these electrodes is critically discussed in tabular comparison of their performance. A detailed analysis of the shortcomings of these materials alongside current research progress and their eco-economic feasibility is described. Finally, future strategies are suggested to further enhance the large-scale practical application of carbon-based electrodes.